Throughout Africa, war has been a major factor in the decline of wildlife populations inside national parks and other protected areas. The destruction of forests in Vietnam War is one of the most commonly used examples of ecocide, including by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics. Not only was the vegetation affected, but also the wildlife: "a mid-1980s study by Vietnamese ecologists documented just 24 species of birds and 5 species of mammals present in sprayed forests and converted areas, compared to 145–170 bird species and 30–55 kinds of mammals in intact forest." The uncertain long-term effects of these herbicides are now being discovered by looking at modified species distribution patterns through habitat degradation and loss in wetland systems, which absorbed the runoff from the mainland. However, the vegetation was unable to regenerate and it left behind bare mudflats which still existed years after spraying. The US military used “more than 20 million gallons of herbicides to defoliate forests, clear growth along the borders of military sites and eliminate enemy crops." The chemical agents gave the US an advantage in wartime efforts. Enemies found an advantage in remaining invisible by blending into a civilian population or taking cover in dense vegetation and opposing armies which targeted natural ecosystems. The Vietnam War had significant environmental implications due to chemical agents which were used to destroy militarily-significant vegetation. Historical events Vietnam Defoliant spray run, part of Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War by UC-123B Provider aircraft Specific examples of the environmental impact of war include World War I, World War II, the Vietnam War, the Rwandan Civil War, the Kosovo War and the Gulf War. The progression of warfare from chemical weapons to nuclear weapons has increasingly created stress on ecosystems and the environment.
However, the methods of modern warfare cause far greater devastation on the environment. Scorched earth methods have been used for much of recorded history.
Study of the environmental impact of war focuses on the modernization of warfare and its increasing effects on the environment. Agent Orange, a herbicide, being sprayed on farmland during the Vietnam War
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